By Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont

When it comes to identifying wildflowers, or even reading about new garden flowers, knowing the words you’ll invariably run across will help you feel less lost.
The main method for differentiating plants is by their flowers. This can be from traits of individual flowers, or the arrangement of many flowers into a group called an “inflorescence.”
Most garden flowers have male and female parts in the same flower, or in separate flowers on the same plant. These are termed “monoecious,” from the words for “one house.” If plants have male and female flowers on separate plants, such as in hops, they are termed “dioecious.”
If all the floral parts, male and female, are in the same flower, this flower is said to be “complete.” Obviously then, “incomplete” flowers have some parts missing. The parts aren’t really missing, however; they may just be separated into male “staminate” (has the stamens or male floral organs with the pollen) and female “pistillate” (has the pistil or female floral organ) flowers.
So far, the terms have covered the usually non-showy flower parts. The petals are usually the showy, colored structures familiar to most people. These were designed not for our enjoyment, rather to attract various pollinating creatures that see various colors. The petals are the inner flower parts, and collectively are termed the “corolla.”
The outer flower parts, termed the “calyx,” are composed of the “sepals.” These may resemble petals and are sometimes so similar that they are confused with them. More often, though, they are leafy and non-showy. These may be the parts covering and protecting flower buds before they open.
When flowers are grouped together, into an “inflorescence,” they may occur at the end of stems (“determinate”) or all along the stems (“indeterminate”). These terms are often used with the tomato, referring to where the fruit is produced.
If flowers occur evenly spaced around a stem, the inflorescence is said to be regular or “symmetrical,” as in Garden Phlox (Phlox paniculata). “Asymmetric” inflorescences have flowers on one side of the stem, as in Solomon’s Seal (Polygonatum).
Now for the terms you’ll encounter most often, sometimes even in the plant species names. These refer to the particular shape of the inflorescence. A “spike” has flowers attached directly to a stalk or stem as in the Spiked Blazing Star (Liatris spicata) or the Speedwell (Veronica spicata).
A “raceme” is often found in gardens with flowers attached to a main stalk by means of smaller stalks (“pedicels”). The Black Snakeroot (Cimicifuga racemosa) and loosestrifes are examples of racemes. Then, if the raceme is branched, it forms a panicle as in the phlox above. If the panicle is flat-topped or convex as in Joe-Pye Weed (Eupatorium) or yarrows, it is called a “corymb.” Finally, if the panicle is coiled as in lungworts, it is called a “cyme.”
If the flowers are on the short stalks (pedicels) arising from a single point, they form an “umbel.” This is common to members of the Carrot Family (formerly called “Umbelliferae”), such as Dill, Fennel and Queen Anne’s Lace. An umbel, only with no flower stalks, is called a flower “head” or “capitulum.” The dense whorls of flowers on Bee Balm (Monarda) form flower heads.
A “composite flower” is a flower head with two flower types. This is common to members of the daisy family such as sunflowers and asters. What most people consider a daisy flower is actually a flower head. The showy outer parts of a daisy are not petals, but rather ray flowers. The inner, usually yellow, tight part of a daisy is actually many disc flowers.
So, the next time you are in your garden, look at the flowers, and see if they fit any of these descriptions. In addition, when reading garden books and flower descriptions, and you see one of these words, pat yourself on the back for knowing what it means.

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By Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont

You have probably seen terms in books, magazines, and catalogs, such as “corm,” “corolla,” or “panicle.” Do you know what these mean? If not, then you do not have a total understanding of the plant you’re reading about or are thinking about buying. You may end up with a surprise–a plant you don’t really like or one that you don’t know how to care for properly.
Roots are probably the least known parts of flowers, mainly because they’re out of sight, so out of mind. However, they can be the most crucial to the success of flowers. Most flowers have fibrous roots–a network of many fine roots. Those adapted for poor soils and dry habitats have taproots–long and deep roots that are designed to go deep in search of water and nutrients. Those with taproots like baby’s breath may be hard to transplant and divide.
Then there are the specialized roots such as bulbs, corms, and tubers. These are special overwintering structures that store plant nutrients. They may be tender and sensitive to severe cold. Bulbs like daffodils are actually short underground stems surrounded by the fleshy scales that store food.
Corms are swollen underground stems, broader than they are high. Two examples are crocus and gladiolus, the latter needing to be dug up and brought in for winter in the colder regions like Vermont. Tubers, like dahlias, are thickened underground stems. This particular plant also needs to be dug up for the winter. Rhizomes are creeping underground stems, partially or totally underground. A good example is the bearded iris.
And then there are shoots. For most garden plants, shoots grow from the tips. Prune them, and they branch or send up new shoots. Grasses, however, grow from the base. Prune them, and they keep growing, just as your hair does.
Flowers are the most complex. The key flower parts are the petals, which together form the “corolla.” These often have other structures on the outside, like petals but less showy, called “bracts.” Together they are called the “calyx.” “Stamens” are the male parts producing the pollen. The “pistil” is the female part producing the seeds.
If all these parts are in each flower, they’re said to be “complete.” If they have the male and female parts in the same flower, they’re said to be “perfect.” However, sometimes flowers only have one sex–they are male or female, unisexual, or “imperfect.”
If these unisexual flowers are on the same plant, the plant is “monoecious,” meaning one house. If they are on different plants–one plant is male, the other female–they are “dioecious.” This is important to know, especially if you are looking for cross-pollination and fruit for an interesting landscape effect or for eating!
Flowers are either single (like most roses), or grouped together into “inflorescences” as with most garden flowers. The terms for these inflorescences–loosely referred to as “the flowers” by most gardeners–is what you usually see in descriptions. Some of the more common include “spike,” indicating individual flowers attached directly to a stalk, and “raceme,” flowers on short stems attached to the main stalk. If the raceme is branched, it has called a “panicle.” If the panicle is flat-topped, it’s a “corymb.”
“Umbels” refer to species with individual flowers, usually very tiny, on short stalks arising from a single point. Some good examples are Queen Anne’s lace and other members of the carrot family. If the stalks are almost non-existent, the flower is a “head” as with Scabiosa.
Many of our garden flowers are in the aster family, characterized by “composite” flowers–those with two actual flower types. The outer are the showier “ray” flowers. The inner head or button is called a “disc” flower.
The next time you see a garden mum, aster, or sunflower, think of each of those “flowers” as really being hundreds of smaller flowers, each capable of being pollinated and forming a seed. That is what makes plants so amazing!

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Dr. Leonard Perry, Extension Professor
University of Vermont

The sustainable way to choose perennials for your garden, that will result in the least maintenance and best success for the plants, is to do so “ecologically” or by habitat. Another way to say this is, “put the right plant in the right place” as far as its cultural needs are concerned. This trend has become quite popular in Europe, and is now becoming better known in our own country.

Plants are all native somewhere, to some specific habitat. This could be sun or shade, dry soil or wet, cool climates or hot, rock or bog gardens. Placing plants in the habitat they originally came from will result in them thriving with minimal further input from us. Misplace them, and we’ll often battle to keep them growing and prospering. This might mean higher maintenance such as weeding and pruning, more chemicals to control pests, and more soil amendments to make them drier or wetter.

Considering plant ecology when choosing and combining perennials also will help maintain the natural environment. It can bring some of the natural world to an urban or suburban environment. The garden also can be used as an outdoor classroom for the family.

You can have a more traditional perennial border or other gardens, yet base them on ecological principles and habitats. The true garden based on these, emulating nature, is not for everyone. Even the traditional garden, if not designed properly, will tend to revert to a more natural state.

So whether you choose the natural or more traditional approach, here are some ecological principles to consider in your designs and plant choices.
– Work with what you’ve got. If you have wet soil, don’t try and change the soil. Rather, choose the best plants for it. Disturb the soil as least as possible, and you’ll have less work, and be following a new trend!
– Select plants as possible that are adaptable, disease-resistant, compact or strong-stemmed, and that will compete well with each other. I’ve lost more than a few new and less vigorous perennials to their nearby aggressive neighbors.
– Strive for a natural design style. Try to imitate nature. This really goes counter to the traditional perennial beds with low in the front and taller in the back, often referred to as the “class photo” just as you had in school. Bring some taller plants right to the front as you might find in nature.
– Plan to cover all the soil with plants. I’ve found nature wants the soil covered, and not with bark mulch! If you don’t put something green there, nature will. These we usually call weeds! This doesn’t mean you need a plant in every square foot. Many perennials grow quite large, covering several square feet. Space such perennials appropriately, and you’ll need to buy less, and you can maintain between them easier.
– Nature generally goes for large numbers, so you should too. Plant in large numbers, swaths, or masses. Let one group “flow” into another, rather than have in distinct cookie-cutter clumps.
– Let some plants self-sow, and weed selectively. This will give you more free plants, create a more natural effect, and is one of the keys to having a “cottage garden.”
– Plan for year round interest. This may include choosing plants that bloom at various times. It also includes leaving some through the fall, not cutting back, for their winter interest. Some of these provide seeds for birds as well.

If you do choose to go the more natural approach, surround the garden or beds with formal elements such as mown lawn, sharp edges, clipped shrubs, or statuary. This will let others know your natural areas are managed and maintained, planned to look that way, and not just abandoned and grown wild!

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